Index (for PDF version)

A

absorption

of light, 434, 445, 449, 455

phytoplankton and seawater, 148

abyssal benthic zone 837, 881, 887

abyssal fan 264

abyssal hill 266–268, 881

abyssal mountains 266, 268

abyssal plains 102, 255, 264, 266–268, 280, 778, 872, 876, 880–881, 926–927

abyssal province 235, 254, 264–265

abyssal waters 520–521, 523, 526, 529, 874

abyssobenthic 837, 881, 885

abyssopelagic zone 837, 871

Adams, Douglas 108

aeolian dust 390–391

aerosols

and climate, 448–449

balloon sampling of, 135

properties of, 411, 447

Africa

diamond mining, 223

dust from, 390–391, 580

fossils, 811, 893

Namib Desert, 579

ocean currents, 633, 644–645

sea beans, 625

relative size, 248

monsoon winds, 641–642

water crisis, 401, 405

Agulhas Current 603

air column, defined 546

air density 546–547

air-sea interface

defined, 139

gas exchange, 342–344

heat exchange, 503

sea surface microlayer, 849

wind energy transfer, 679

Alaminos, Antonio de 623

Alaskan Gyre 596, 598–599

albatrosses

black-browed, 660

Chatham, 610

gray-headed, 584

wandering, 534–537

albedo 449–452

Alexander the Great 87

Allegheny Seamount 882

Amazon River 388, 411, 604

ammonites 807

amphipods 873–874, 917

anaerobic respiration 394

Anasazi 423

ancient sunlight 424–425, 471

Annan, Kofi 347

Annelida 778

anoxygenic photosynthesis 392

Antarctic Circle 498, 500–501, 593

Antarctic Circumpolar Current 595–596, 598–599, 609–611

Antarctica

albatross circumnavigation, 536

desert, 579

freshwater, 248

ice mass, 736

ozone hole, 346

subpolar gyres, 595–596

anthroposphere 20–21

aphotic zone 846

aquifers 370–371

Arabian Desert 579

Archaea 781–783, 785, 791–793, 795, 797–798, 808, 820, 822, 826, 830, 833–834, 865

archaeal organelle 797

Archean 381–382, 789–791, 794–795, 819–820, 822, 824–827, 829, 832

Archean Oxidation Event 794, 829

Arctic Circle 500–501

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 596

Arctic Ocean 10, 52, 114, 251, 517, 595, 611, 650, 874

Aristotle 87, 100, 334

Arthropoda 780

artificial intelligence 56, 58, 66

artificial reefs 603, 892

Asia

as part of Eurasia, 249

kelp highway, 632

relative size, 245

asphaltum 258, 283

Atlantic Ocean 10, 250

Amazon River and, 388

CFC-12, 348

European climate and, 602

drift bottles, 110

dust plumes, 198, 248, 580

Gulf Stream, 603–607, 623–626

marine national monument, 271

size, 253

standard seawater, 400

Swallow floats, 110–111

transatlantic cable, 263

atmosphere

absorption and transmission of light, 441–444

air pollution, 448

as part of Earth system, 20–21, 366, 637–638

chlorofluorocarbons, 345–346, 539

climate, defined, 24, 542

composition of, 538–540

convection, 437, 440, 445, 571, 573

early Earth, 790–791, 793–796

Gaia, 815

gas exchange, 342–344

global warming, 453–446

greenhouse effect, 444–446

heat exchange with ocean, 503, 518, 522, 527

highs and lows, 548–549

layers of, 543–545

methane, 349

nitrogen, 538

ocean tracers, 348

oxygen, 393, 538

ozone, 346–347, 539

particles 328, 330, 391

physical properties, 540–541

pressure, 79–80, 546–547

reflection, 449–450

scattering, 446–447

tools for studying, 135, 137, 139, 362, 581

variable gases in, 540

weather, defined, 24, 542

atmospheric circulation

atmospheric rivers, 582–583

deserts and, 579

equatorial doldrums, 577

horse latitudes, 577–578

Intertropical Convergence Zone, 578, 634–635

jet streams, 581–582

one-cell model, 570–574

ocean circulation and, 602, 609, 617–620

Rossby waves, 582

scales of atmospheric motion, 556

three-cell model, 574–580

trade winds, 575

westerlies, 576

atmospheric diving suit 69, 90

atmospheric window 441–442

atoms

chemical bonds, 304

chemical symbols, 300

covalent bond, 307

hydrogen bond, 308

ionic bonds, 314

parts of, 299

periodic table of elements, 301–303

Periodic Table of the Elements in the Ocean, 321

auroras 426

Australia

climate change, 465

currents, 603, 607–608, 627, 633

mega-evaporites, 382

relative size, 249

seasons, 495

stromatolites, 789–790

waves, 700

autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) 122–124

Abyss, 123

adaptive tracking systems, 123

described, 122–124

docking stations, 151

autotrophs 392–393

chemoautotrophs, 393–394, 410, 917

photoautotrophs, 332, 393–394

Axial Caldera Cabled Array, 153

Axial Seamount 152, 158

Azores Current 598–599, 635–636

B

backshore 180–182, 207

bacteria

biogeochemical cycles, 791–792

cyanobacteria, 333, 768, 782, 789–790, 794–795

methanogenic, 350

domain, 781–783, 785, 791, 798

as food, 869

nitrogen-fixing, 539

organelles, 797, 823

and oxygen, 794–796

sediments, 216, 801–802

skeletons, 808

baitball 853

Ballard, Robert 119

Barton, Otis 87

basalt  242–244, 272

Bascom, Willard 657

bathtub toys and currents 609

bathyscaphe 88

bathysphere 87, 856

beaches

beach cusps, 183

berms, 181–182

cross-shore transport, 205–206, 207, 214

diamond mining, 173, 215, 223

beach face, 182–183, 206–207, 697

longshore current, 202–205, 211, 213

longshore transport, 202, 204–205

low-tide terrace, 183–185

nourishment, 219–220, 228, 231

profile, 207, 209, 228

sandbar, 183–184, 206

sand budget, 213, 362

sand mining, 221–223, 741

scarps, 182, 206–207

starvation, 217, 219

rills, 184

wrack line, 182–183

Beaufort Gyre 595, 598–599, 611, 946, 975

Beaufort, Sir Francis 595, 682

Beaufort wind force scale 653, 682–683

Beebe, William 87, 856

Béhar, Yves 98

Beiser, Vince 221

Benguela Current 598–599, 607, 633

benthic landers 105, 126, 874

benthic-pelagic coupling 812, 823

bathyal benthic zone 837, 886–887

bathybenthic 837, 886

bathypelagic zone 837, 864, 866–867, 869

benthopelagic zone 837, 875

Berann, Heinrich 253

Bering Sea 261, 289, 926

Bering-Bristol-Pribylov Canyon 261

big data 56–59, 65

Bigelow, Henry 73

Bilateria 800

biogeography 845

bio-optical oceanography 138

biogeochemical cycles 791–792, 814, 816, 869, 876, 885

biological oceanography 14, 149

biologically important nutrients 258, 322, 332–334, 392, 519, 524, 526, 527, 606, 608, 631, 632, 812

bioluminescence 90, 100, 867–868, 909, 915, 920, 928

biomineralization 808–809

biosphere 20–21, 280, 366, 368–369, 767, 817, 835

biotite 186, 191

bioturbation 811, 819

Bjerknes, Vilhelm 647

black carbon 448, 475

black comb jelly 865

black scabbard  861

Blake Plateau 263, 289

blind cirrate octopod 864

bluefin tuna 603, 622, 646, 649

Bohr, Neils 299

bottlenose dolphin 654

boundary currents, 601–608

Brazil Current 598–599, 603, 627, 646

Brazil-Malvinas Confluence 627

breakers, types of 695–696

brine 388–389, 406–408, 505

brine rejection 388–389, 505

bristlemouth fish 868

Brown, Neil 512

brown pelican 665, 673

Bumpus, Dean “Bump” 110

buoyancy

Argo floats, 113–114

bathyscaphe, 88

buoyancy-driven mixing, 519

buoyant forces, 506–507

gliders, 116–117

buoyancy compensator 508–509

C

calibration of salinometer 399–400

CalCOFI 76–77, 79, 520, 523, 526, 528

California Current System 598–599, 627–632

California Countercurrent, 629

California Undercurrent, 631

Davidson Current, 628–629, 631

as eastern boundary current, 607

as kelp highway, 632

map of, 630

upwelling and phytoplankton, 632

California grunion 725–726, 522

Cambrian 806–808, 810–813

Canary Current 598–599, 607, 633

capillary wave 664–666, 668, 679

carbon dioxide

atmospheric, 453–454, 460–461

autotrophs, 392–395

dissolved, 337–338

flood basalts, 272–273

fossil fuels, 424–425

greenhouse gas, 445–446, 455, 790

oxygen minimum zones, 858

rain, 192

respiration, 394–395

sources and sinks, 453, 457, 460, 567

carbonate platform 263

Carlsbad desalination plant 404, 407

cells

colonial, 798

endosymbiosis, 783, 797

eukaryogenesis, 797–798

eukaryotes, 781, 796–798

multicellular, 798–799

organelles, 796–797

prokaryotes, 797

Celsius, Anders 436

CEMEX Sand Mine 222

Central South Equatorial Current 598–599, 600

Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales 147

cerianthid anemone 882

cetaceans 771, 829

Challenger Deep 79, 88, 94–95, 273–274, 872, 874

Chamberlin, Colleen 624–625

Channel Islands 72, 283, 629, 690

chemical oceanography 14, 323-324

Chihuahan Desert 391

chimaeras 875

chloride ion 314, 318–319

chlorophyll 124, 148, 513, 517

Chlorophyta 777

chemoautotrophs, 393–394, 410, 917

Chuckchi Borderlands 517

Chumash 72, 258

citizen science 751, 904

clam gun 724

Clarion-Clipperton Zone 280

Clarke, Sir Arthur 240, 766

cleaning station 270

climate (see also sea level rise)

animal movements and, 843–844, 859

Arctic, 251, 611

Argo, 115

defined, 23–26, 542–543

and Earth system, 16, 27, 543, 637–638, 815

early Earth, 804, 814

energy imbalance, 455–456

feedback loops, 450–452

global climate change, 26, 457–465

global warming, 453–456, 458–459, 461, 463, 464–465

Greenland, 638

human activities and, 424–425

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 456, 469, 471, 474, 741

MOSAiC, 52, 54–55

North Atlantic Deep Water, 637

ocean observatories, 154–155

ocean heat content, 465–468,

phytoplankton, 567

SCICEX, 92

sediment traps, 129

SSS, 389

SST, 142–143

tipping points, 452–453

water supply, 403

Weddell Gyre, 596

climate zones 500–502

cloud (computers) 37, 57

clouds (atmosphere)

atmospheric layers and, 545

balloon studies, 135

cloud condensation nuclei 447–448

defined, 368, 540

deserts, 579

effect on air temperature, 560–561

fog, 560–561

Intertropical Convergence Zone, 578, 635

marine layer, 560

optics, 446, 449–450

part of weather, 24, 542

satellite observations, 140–142

sea surface microlayer and, 849

Cloud, Preston 806

Cnidaria 778–779

coastal armoring 218

coastal benthic zone 837, 890, 892

coastal bluffs 210, 215, 217

coastal cells (see littoral cells)

Coastal Endurance Array 153–154

coastal ocean 185, 244–245, 556

coastal oceanography 244

coastal redwood tree 176

cockatoo squid 855

cold-core rings 604–606, 650

cold seeps 348–349, 394, 880, 886–887

Columbia (space shuttle) 358

Columbia (supercontinent) 793

Columbia Plateau 272

Columbia River 242, 272

comb jelly 766, 778, 800, 856, 865

compressional heating 564–565, 579

conceptual models 20, 22, 43, 205, 213, 362, 402

condor 551

conduction (heat) 437, 439–440, 441, 508

conductivity (electrical) 398–400, 435, 436–437, 512

conductivity-temperature-depth instrument (see instruments)

Connell, Joseph 901

conservative element 326, 950

constructive interference 664, 703

continents 245–249

defined, 241

early Earth, 381–383

hypsographic curve, 243

isostasy, 241

percentage covered by ocean, 10

as part of seafloor, 241

continental crust 186–187, 242–244, 254, 255, 272, 381, 793

continental margins 254–255, 259, 277, 886

continental rise 265, 886

continental shelf 254, 255–258

continental slope 254, 256, 258–263, 265

contour current 265

convict tang 271

Cooper, Andrew 225, 230

copepods 780, 886

copper 278, 327, 333, 440

coral grouper 270

corals

as autotrophs, 393

bamboo corals, 91

Cnidaria, 778, 800

coral bleaching, 143

Coral Reef Watch, 142–143

deep-sea, 877, 888

as ecosystem engineers, 811

finger corals, 395

Great Barrier Reef, 249

and Kuroshio Current, 622

as sediments, 178

Cordell Bank 256

Coriolis force 553–556, 570, 574–575, 602, 608, 614, 619, 620, 641

Coriolis, Gaspard Gustave de 553

Cortes Bank 701

Cousteau, Fabien 98, 100

Cousteau, Jacques 88–89, 101

Cousteau, Simone 97

Cromwell Current 600

Cromwell, Townsend 600

cryosphere

albedo, 449

defined, 20–21

feedback loops, 451

interactions with Earth system, 20, 366, 457

latent heat and, 379

Ctenophora 778

Currituck Landslide 265

cusk eel 274, 914

cutthroat eels 876

Cuvier’s beaked whales 861

D

Darwin, Charles 390, 873

Davidson, George 629, 648

Day Zero 409

depth zones

benthic, 877–905

pelagic, 848–876

deep circulation 592, 610

Deep Pamlico Canyon 266

deep-sea mining

DeepGreen Metals, 281

concerns, 281–282, 885, 889

described, 276–277

impacts, 279–280

manganese nodules, 121, 277, 883–884

marine phosphorites, 277

polymetallic crusts, 277, 884

polymetallic nodules, 277, 280, 287, 916, 927

seafloor massive sulfide deposit, 277

status, 278–279

deep submergence vehicles (DSVs)

described, 93

Alvin, 93–94, 100

Fendouzhe, 94

Limiting Factor, 94–95, 539

deep water wave 691–692

Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART) 131

deforestation 23, 216, 453

delta 202

density (see also seawater density)

and air pressure, 546–547

air vs. water, 80, 540

basalt vs. granite, 243

defined, 310

hot air balloons, 508, 548

specific gravity, 312

temperature effects, 310–312, 320

detritus

brisingid sea star eating, 883

defined, 335–336

larvaceans, 869, 883, 888

urchins, 888

vampire squid, 855, 858

whale falls as, 336

Devil Island 179

Dewey, John 49

Diamond Valley Lake 363

Dickey, Tommy 73

Dickinsonia 802

diffusion 342–344

digital thermometer 435, 437

dinosaurs

and birds, 772–773

theropods, 773

Dioum, Baba 28

dissolved organic matter 322, 334, 851, 870

dissolving 192, 315, 319

anions, 318, 320, 399

cations, 318, 320, 399

electrostriction, 320

of gases, 338–341, 344

saturation concentration, 319, 340

solute, 315, 319–320

solvent, 315

Dittmar, William 324–325

Dituri, Joseph 98

diving bell 87, 99

Dog Beach 185, 656

dogfish shark 889

Doheny Ocean Desalination Project 404, 413

downslope winds 562–563, 566–567

Drake Passage 611

drifters

drift bottle method, 109

Global Drifter Program, 111, 112

holey sock drogue, 111

duck dive 674, 951

duct tape 72

E

Eagle Valley Evaporite 383

Earle, Sylvia 90

early Earth

abiogenesis, 788

Columbia, 793

Late Heavy Bombardment, 788, 820

Pangea, 382–383, 804

Rodinia, 382, 793

Snowball Earth, 793–794

Ur, 381, 789

Earth

axial tilt, 488

axis of rotation, 487, 490

energy imbalance, 419, 455, 457, 459, 461, 463, 465–467, 471

equatorial plane, 489, 491

geophysical fluids, 533, 540–541

orbit, 488–491, 502

orbital plane, 489–490

rotation, 487

Earth system

biology and, 768

climate change and, 26

defined, 16

energy imbalance, 455–456

feedback loops in, 450–452

Gaia hypothesis, 815

geobiology, 816–817

satellite observations of, 139

spheres of, 20–22

tipping points, 452–453

East Australian Current 598–599, 627

Easter Island (see Rapa Nui)

Echinodermata 780

ecosystems

ecosystem engineering, 811–812

ecosystem services, 16

living shorelines, 224

Ediacaran

agronomic revolution, 811

appearance of animals, 799–800

biota, 801–803, 813

body plans, 800–801

diversification of organisms, 807–808, 810, 812–813

mass extinction, 803

Ehrlich, Paul, 63

Ekman depth 615–616

Ekman spiral 614–616

Ekman transport 616–617

Ekman, V. Walfrid 614

El Segundo Beach 560

electromagnetic radiation

aerosols, 447–449

albedo, 449–450

atmospheric scattering, 446–447

atmospheric window, 441–443

black carbon and, 448

car hood’s, 238

detection of, 134–135, 139–140

energy imbalance, 455–456

interactions with matter, 433–434

longwave radiation, 443–444

night vision, 439

photosynthetically available radiation, 851

shortwave radiation, 443–444

spectrum, 430–431, 438–439, 441–444, 446, 851

Wien’s law, 438, 443–444

Elwha River 218–219, 339

Emery, Kenneth O. 207

Emery method 207–208, 953

Empire State Building 541

energy, types of 432–433 (see also kinetic energy and potential energy)

environments

biogeography, 845

habitat, 842–844

oceanic, 846–847

subseafloor, 251–252

epipelagic zone 850–854

equatorial currents 597–600

Equatorial Undercurrent 597, 598–599, 600

equinox (see seasons)

euglenids 796

Eukarya 777, 781–783, 796–798

eukaryogenesis 797

euphotic zone 850–852, 856, 858, 891

Europe

deep-sea mining, 279

Gulf Stream and mail, 623, 626

ice age, 26

International Ice Patrol, 144

Ponce de Leon, 623

relative size, 249

transatlantic cable, 263

weather and ocean currents, 635–637

evaporation

GRACE observations of, 736

salinity and dissolved gases, 339–340

sea surface salinity, 384–385

tide pools, 900–901

water cycle, 370, 372

water resources, 402

evaporites 382–383

evolution

adaptive radiation, 806, 831

agronomic revolution, 811

Cambrian radiation, 806, 810, 819, 833

competition, 695, 812, 901, 910–911

evolutionary arms race, 813

last universal common ancestor, 781, 798, 820, 833

speciation, 331, 873, 972

symmetry, 800–801

exosphere 545

expeditions

Challenger, 58, 73–74, 155, 324,  511

Deep Search 2019, 862

Hidden Ocean 2016, 517

MOSAiC, 52, 54–55, 65, 224, 231, 258, 888

Norwegian Polar Expedition, 511

Windows to the Deep 2021, 883

F

Fahrenheit, David Gabriel 436

Falco, Albert 96

false killer whale 310

fangtooth fish 859

feedback loops 450–452

feldspar 186, 191

Ferrel, William 574

Fire Island 209, 227

fisheries

boundary currents and, 602, 603, 608, 627

CalCOFI, 76–77

mesopelagic, 861

motivation for ocean science, 72, 889

Fishman, Charles 401

Flemish Cap 636

Flight MH370 119

floats 110–116

Air-Launched Autonomous Micro-Observer (ALAMO), 115

Argo, 99, 112–115, 385, 466, 590, 744, 852

Biogeochemical Argo, 114

Deep Argo, 114

Swallow float, 110–111

fog

and boundary currents, 602, 634

coastal formation, 560–561

defined, 560

evaporation fog, 372

and redwood trees, 177

Folger, Timothy 626, 648–649

Forbes, Edward 893

Forchhammer, Georg 324–325

foreshore 181–185, 207

fourth paradigm 57, 65, 954

Fox, George 781, 833

Franklin, Benjamin 117, 648–649

Freire, Márcio 698, 705

frost wedging 192–193

Fullerton College 61, 67, 186, 245, 639, 727

G

Gagnan, Émile 88

Gaia hypothesis 815–817

Galapagos Rift 242

Galesnjak Island 701

gamma rays 431, 442

gases (see also greenhouse gases)

air-sea exchange, 342–345

atmospheric, 538–540

autotrophs and, 393–394

bubble injection, 344

chlorofluorcarbons, 346–347

defined, 374

density, temperature and pressure relationships, 310

diffusion, 342–343

dissolved, 337–341

and electromagnetic radiation, 441–443, 446–447

as ocean tracers, 347–348

respiration and, 394

solubility, 319-320

turbulence, 342, 344

Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis 298, 317

genes 771, 773, 797–798

General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) 273

geobiology 816

geoid 146, 729–730

geologic time

and life, 786–814

paleoshorelines and, 256–257

salinity and, 381–384

sea level and, 727–728

geologic timeline 382, 787

geological oceanography 14

geomagnetic storm 426

geophysical fluid dynamics 541, 587

geosphere 20–21, 240, 366–367

geostrophic currents 619–620

Gerkema, Theo 712

giant sloth 728

Giberne, Agnes 11

Gidget 703

Giggenbach volcano 278

glacial isostatic adjustment 739–740

glass sponges 887–888

gliders

Slocum glider, 116–117

wave gliders, 117, 161

Glines Dam 219

Global Drifter Program 111, 112

Global Irminger Sea Array 154

global warming (see climate change)

Gobi Desert 391

Gogh, Vincent van 137

gold 300, 313

Gold Bluffs Beach 177

Gosnold Seamount 279

Gould, Stephen J. 786

Grand Banks 263, 635–636

Grand Dunes National Park 267

Grandview Surf Beach 217

granite 191, 243

gravity

and atmosphere, 538, 546–547

and buoyancy, 506–507

and dissolved salts, 316–317

geoid, 729

geostrophic currents, 619–620

hydrostatic equilibrium, 550–551

ocean tides, 712–715

ocean waves, 660, 668–669, 679

sediment transport, 194

turbidity currents, 211

water cycle, 370, 373

and wave energy, 678

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment 734–737

gray angelfish 891

Gray, Stephen 398

gray whales 176, 483, 607, 728

Great Barrier Reef 249, 395, 627, 811

Great Basin 565

Great Ordovician Biodiversity Event 807–808

Great Oxidation Event 538, 794–796

Great Victoria Desert 579

great white sharks 50, 123, 606, 850, 861

greenhouse effect  444–446, 453–456

greenhouse gases

greenhouse effect and, 446, 454–456

major types of, 444–446

sources and sinks, 453–454, 457, 460

Greenland

ice mass, 251, 736–737

Nansen, 613

ocean observatory, 154

sea, 611

size, 248

groins 218

ground truthing 129, 150

groundwater 20, 134, 367, 369, 372, 740–741

grunion 483, 522, 725–726

Gulf of Mexico

cold seep tubeworms, 886

comb jellies, 766, 865

evaporites, 383

ice worms, 349

source of Gulf Stream, 623

sublittoral width, 892

Gulf Stream 594, 598–599, 603–607, 623–626, 635–636

guyots 266, 268, 271, 887

H

habitat

defined, 843

environment, 843–844

hadal benthic zone 879–881

hadal province 273–275

Hadean 786, 788

Hadley cell 574, 576, 579–580

Hadley, George 574

hadobenthic zone (see hadal benthic zone)

hadopelagic zone 872–874

Haleakala Crater 422

halite 313–314

hammerhead sharks 268

Harappan Civilization 641

Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain  271

headlands 700, 724

headless canyon 262

headwaters 188–190

heat

specific heat (or sensible heat), 375–376

latent heat, 376–379

latent heat of fusion, 377–378

latent heat of vaporization, 377–378

measurement of, 375–377

heatstroke 438

Hedgpeth, Joel 846

Heliopsis, 423

heliosphere 20–21

hermit crab 279, 725, 884

Heezen, Bruce 253

Hennig, Willi 771

Herbert, Frank 39, 238

Himalayan sea salt 361

Himalayas 245

hippos and whales 772, 776–777

hot air balloons 508–509, 547–548

Hoxton, Walter 623, 649

Humboldt Current 607, 633

Humboldt, Alexander von 298, 633

humpback whales 48-49, 764–765, 776

Huntington Beach 185, 190, 656, 658, 690, 695, 902

Huntington Beach desalination plant 407, 408

Hurricane Harvey 462

Hurricane Ian 462

Hurricane Sandy 209, 732

hybrid remotely operated vehicles (HROVs) 125

Ariane, 125

UROV11K, 125, 163

hybrid-type trace element 330–331

hydrogen bonds 308–310

hydrographic station 74–76

hydrosphere 20–21, 366

hydrostatic equilibrium 550–551

hypsographic curve 243

I

icebergs 144, 370–371, 398, 435, 614

Idyll, Clarence P. 865

Indian Ocean 10, 250

monsoon, 639–642

oceanic plateaus, 272

size, 253

trenches, 275

Indonesian Throughflow 639

infiltration 370–371

infrared light 431, 441, 443

inherited character 773

instruments

Argos satellite tag, 590

benthic landers, 105, 126, 874

CTD, 109, 512–517, 520, 523, 526, 528, 917

hadal lander, 126, 874

laser rangefinder, 617

reversing thermometers, 511–512

salinometers, 398–399, 512, 531

stacked thermistors, 152

steerable stratospheric balloon, 972

towfish, 118–119

mini-autonomous underwater explorers, 127

International Ice Patrol 144

International Space Station 139, 245

iron 330–331, 333–334, 391–392, 397, 566–567

Ise Grand Shrine complex 423

Isla Vista 217

Isle de Jean Charles 741

Izu-Bonin trench 879

J

Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency 142

Java Trench 275

Jaws (surf spot) 701–702

jet streams 556, 580–583, 637, 639, 689

JIM suit 90–91

Johansen, Hjalmer 613

Johnstone, James 11

Joshua Tree National Park 242, 428, 857

Juan de Fuca Ridge 153

K

Kahanamoku, Duke 657

Kai Ridge 866

Kalahari Desert 579

Kármán line 545

Keeling, Charles 460

kelp 182, 518, 525, 632–633, 723

kelp highway 632–633

Khewra Salt Mine 383

Kilauea 242

kinetic energy

heat, 432–433, 439

momentum transfer, 677

temperature, 434–435

thermosphere, 545

winds and, 675

wave energy, 678, 685

king tides 181, 217, 723, 749–751, 752

kite aerial photography 135

kite surfing 558, 666

Knoll Beach 703

Koko Guyot 271

Komodo National Park 179

Konark Sun Temple 423

krill 780, 857

Kurlansky, Mark 360

Kuroshio Current 598–599, 603, 621–622, 638

Kuroshio Extension 621, 638

Kuroshio Road 622

L

Lagrange, Joseph-Louis 110

Lagrangian platforms, 110, 162

Laguna Beach 67, 186, 210, 483, 565, 696, 710, 731, 739, 895, 901

Lake Assad 403

Lake Mead 402

lanternfishes 857

larvaceans 869

law of conservation of energy 432

Leeuwin Current 598–599, 607–608, 633

León, Juan Ponce de 623

Lewala, Zacharias 223

lichens 193

littoral cell 212–213

littoral zone 893–903

littorines 896

living sea, defined 767

living shorelines 224–225

Long Beach 257, 740–741

longwave radiation 442–446, 454, 455

Lorenzen, Carl 108

Los Angeles Basin 232

Lost Coast Trail 724

Low Elevation Coastal Zone 747

Lovelock, James 240, 815

Lozinsky, Richard 186

M

M&Ms and ratios 325–326

macronutrients 332–333

Madden-Julian Oscillation 639

major constituents 322–326, 380–381

Malvinas Current 598–599, 627

Mammoth Mountain wind gust 688

mangroves 393

manu-o-Kū (white tern), 594

maps

cardinal directions, 689

compass rose, 689

isobars, 548–549

isobaths, 697

ordinal directions, 689

Marcet, Alexander 323

Mariana Arc 389

Mariana Trench 125–126, 157, 160–162, 167, 193, 273–275, 590, 693, 861, 872–874, 879, 882, 885, 918

marine big data 58

marine geomorphometry 253–254

marine layer 560

Marine Optical Buoy system 150

marine viruses 791–792

Mars 239, 350, 429, 815, 840

mass extinctions 273, 453, 804, 814

matgrounds  802–803, 811

mathematical models 44–45, 663

Mauna Loa 242, 454, 460

Mauritius Oceanography Institute  639

Mavericks 701

mega-evaporite (see evaporites)

megacities

beaches, 215

sea level rise, 747

water crisis, 401

meltwater 370, 388, 638

Melville, Herman 296

membrane-based desalination, 406–406

meridional overturning circulation (see world ocean circulation)

mesopelagic zone 87–88, 606, 855–861, 866

mesophotic coral ecosystems 89

mesoscale eddies 137, 604–607, 854, 860

metazoans 799–800

meteorology 15, 537, 541

methane 238, 345, 348–350, 394, 445, 790

methane hydrates 349–350

methanogens 349, 790

metric system 375

Mickey Mouse 298–299, 307–308

microbial mat 789, 798, 801–802

microfossils 789

micronutrients 332–334, 392, 567

microwaves

electromagnetic spectrum, 431

gravity measurements, 735

passive sensing, 142, 144–145

431, 617, 734–735, 943, 961, 965, 969, 974

satellite altimeters, 146–147, 617–619, 734

Mid-Atlantic Ridge 866, 887

middle intertidal 899–900

midnight zone (see bathypelagic zone)

Milky Way 425, 428

Minami-Tori-shima Island 278

Mindanao Current 621, 634

minerals

beaches, 186, 191

biomineralization, 808–809

deep-sea mining, 276–282, 885, 889

halite, 313

hydrothermal vents 278, 382, 389

 mini-autonomous underwater explorers 127

minor constituents 322, 326–334

mixed layer

defined, 520

depth, 520–521

and organisms, 854

seasonal, 518–528

mixgrounds 811

mixing (of the ocean)

and abyssal circulation, 876

buoyancy-driven, 519–521

and stratification, 524, 526

tracers of, 348

warm-core rings, 606

mixtures 305

moai statues 193

models (see scientific method)

Mojave Desert 242

molecules

chemical formulas, 306–307

emergent properties, 17

polar, 307–308

structure, 298–299, 304–305

types of molecules, 305

mollusks 395, 771, 779

momentum 676–677

monk seal 22, 480, 842

monsoon 639–644

Monterey Bay 201, 222, 225, 558, 696, 719

Monterey Bay Submarine Canyon 256, 259, 891–892

Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute 321

Montreal Protocol 347

Moon

gravitational force, 712–715

orbit, 715–716

phases, 716–717

sidereal month, 715

synodic month, 716

moon jelly 358

Moore, Captain Charles 191, 648

Morro Bay 725

Morse code 398

MOSAiC 52, 54–55

Mount Erebus 248

Mount Etna 269

Mount Everest 245, 274, 361

Mount Shasta 269

Mouse, Mickey 298, 307–308

mouth (of river) 189–190, 200–202, 205, 213, 219–220, 223

Mt. San Gorgonio 189–190

Mullaly Canyon debris flow 462

multispectral imager (see sensors)

Munk, Walter 147

Murray, John 73, 102, 351, 821, 914

mussels 708, 711, 779, 888, 900

mystery zone (see abyssopelagic zone)

N

Nansen bottle (see sampling devices)

Nansen, Fridtjof 52, 511, 611–613

Namib Desert 579

Naruto Straits 605

National Tidal Datum Epoch 721

natural gas hydrate 350

Nauru, Micronesia 278

Nazaré 637, 698–699

near-bottom zone (see benthopelagic zone)

nekton 842-844, 850, 853, 858, 860

Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event 799

neritic (see coastal ocean)

Neruda, Pablo 297

Newport Back Bay Estuary 722

Newport Beach 182, 183, 184, 190, 195, 200, 203, 204, 207, 212, 220, 462, 681, 702, 722, 750

Newport submarine canyon 212

Newton, Sir Isaac 42

Niskin, Shale 513

nitrogen-fixing bacteria 539

nitrous oxide 445

Nitsch, Herbert 80

North America

ice ages, 26

Gulf Stream and mail, 623, 626

kelp highway, 632–633

Madden–Julian Oscillation and, 639

relative size, 248

North Atlantic Current 598–599, 609, 635–638

North Atlantic Gyre 594, 598–599

North Equatorial Countercurrent 597, 598–599

North Equatorial Current 590, 597, 598–599, 621, 628, 634–635, 643–644

North Pacific Current 598–599, 609, 635, 638

North Pacific Gyre 594, 598–599, 634

North Shore 696

North South Equatorial Current 600

Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument 271

Northeast Monsoon Current 598–599, 643

northeast trade winds 575, 578, 580

Norwegian Current 636

Nozaki, Yoshiyuki 321

nuisance flooding, 749–750, 755

numerical models, 56

nutrients (see biologically important nutrients)

O

obligate anaerobes 795

ocean basins

anatomy of, 266–273

anoxic basins, 795

as defined by oceanographers, 10–13, 250–251

eastern vs. western, 600

formal definition, 266

geology of, 241–243

geosphere and, 20

map of, 246-247

oceanic gyres in, 594–596

oxygenation of, 799

percentage of Earth’s surface, 10

rivers and, 198

sea level rise in, 737

sizes, 253

water cycle and, 367, 369–372

Ocean Beach 215

ocean climate 543, 843

ocean color 137–138, 148–150, 631–632

ocean eddies (see mesoscale eddies)

Ocean Flux Program (OFP) 129

ocean heat content 466–468

ocean mining (see deep-sea mining)

ocean moorings 73, 128–131, 151, 154

ocean observatories 151–155

ocean tides (see tides)

ocean tracers 347–348

oceanic crust 187, 242–244, 381–382, 883

oceanic plateaus 271–272

oceanic ridges 264, 266–267, 876, 881, 886

oceanic trenches 126, 273–275, 872, 879–881

Oceano Dunes 180

Oceanside 210

octopus 152, 336, 779, 813, 864, 874

offshore winds 185, 558–567

Okinawa Trough 278

onshore winds 557–558, 560–561

ooids 178

open ocean

color, 148–149

defined, 185, 244–245

operational oceanography 56–57, 142

Oranjemund 223

Ordovician 807–808, 810

Oregon State University 117

oryx 579

Osa Peninsula 202

oxygen

biological sources and sinks, 392–395

bioturbation and, 811–812

dissolution in water, 341

diversification of life, 810

hypoxic events, 154

measurement in trenches, 126

as macronutrient, 334

minimum zones, 858–859

molecular, 304–305

oxygenation of atmosphere, 538, 790, 793–796, 799

water molecule, 298–300, 307–308, 319, 320

Oyashio Current 596, 598–599, 621

ozone 305, 346–348, 539

P

Pacific Ocean 10, 250

deep water age, 330

influence on weather, 638

largest guyot, 271

oceanic trenches, 275

redwood trees, 176-177

Santa Ana River watershed, 190–191

seamounts in, 269

size, 253

Pajaro River 201

pale blue dot 9

paleoshoreline 256–257

Palm Beach Regional Science Fair 624

Palos Verdes Peninsula 665, 697

Palouse 267

pan de muerto 617

Pangea 382, 383, 804

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 270, 271, 480–481

Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness 524

particulate organic matter 322, 334–336, 869

particles

absorption, 329

aggregation, 328, 330

chemisoprtion, 329

external particles, 328

internal particles, 328

physisorption, 328

scavenging, 328, 330–331, 587

Patagonian Desert 579

Patton Escarpment 257

Pe’ahi 702

peer review 36, 60–61

periwinkles (littorines) 896

Perpetual Ocean (NASA) 604

Peru Basin 121, 126, 279

Peru-Chile Current 598–599, 607, 633

Pettersson, Otto 511

Phaeophyta 777

Phanerozoic 786, 804–814

Phoenix Islands 274

photic zone 846 (see also euphotic zone)

photoautotrophs 332, 393–394

photophores 867–868

photosynthesis 392–394

and atmospheric oxygen, 393

effect on nutrient concentrations, 334

euphotic zone and, 850–852, 856

and Great Oxidation Event, 538, 794–796

sublittoral zonation, 891

phylogenetic trees 771–774, 785

physical oceanography 14

phytoplankton

aeolian influence, 391, 561, 566–567

cloud condensation nuclei, 447–448

defined, 124

ocean color and, 137, 148–149

light penetration and, 851

mesoscale eddies (rings) and, 605–606

nutrients and, 331–334, 395, 538

seasonal variations, 518, 522, 525–526, 527

phytodetritus, 858, 869, 875

thin layers, 525

upwelling and, 608, 631–632

Picard, Jacques 88

Pilkey, Orrin 225

pillow basalts 242

Pineapple Express 583

pink jellies 336

Pipeline 40, 636, 696, 703

pirates 361, 597, 600, 604, 651

Pisgah Crater 242

plesiosaurs 814, 833

point break 700

Point Conception 211, 629, 631

Point Lobos State Natural Reserve 262

polar bears 505, 613, 850

polar cell 574–576, 580–581

polar day 498–499

polar easterlies 575–576

polar gyres 595–596

polar jet stream 580–582, 637

polar molecules 307–308, 314–316, 341

polar night 499

polar submarine canyons 261

polar zone (see climate zones)

polychaete 717, 778, 886

pond hockey 311

Popocatépetl 269

Popper, Karl 46

Poralia 860, 923

Porifera 771, 778, 809

Porthcawl Lighthouse 659

Posidonius 733

potential energy

defined, 432

in waves, 677–678, 685–686

practical salinity scale 400

Prado Dam 218

Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park 176

precipitation

climate change and, 457, 462, 542

GRACE observations of, 736

Hadley cell and, 579

Intertropical Convergence Zone, 578

salinity and, 349–340, 380, 384–385

from solutions, 178, 328, 388

tide pools and, 900

in water cycle, 370, 373

water availability, 402

as weather, 24

pressure

air, 79–80, 546–547

atmospheric circulation and, 570–574, 576, 579

atmospheric dive suit, 90

buoyancy and, 506–507

compressional heating, 563–564, 579

Cuvier’s beaked whales and, 861

depth zones, 860–861, 874, 886

desalination and, 405–406

dissolved gases and, 337, 338, 340–341

geostrophic flow and, 618–619

high-altitude balloons, 135

hot air balloons and, 508

hydrostatic skeleton and, 809

metamorphic rocks, 186–187

parrots as alarms, 96

water, 79–80, 310–311

weather and, 548–549

winds and, 420, 550–552, 554

pressure gradient force 552, 619

principle of constant proportions 323–326

principle of unity 12–13

Prion Island 534

prokaryotes 797

Proterozoic 786, 793–803

protists  784, 796

psychedelic jelly 870, 920

Puerto Rico Trench 275

Punta Gorda Lighthouse 724

purple acorn worm 882

pushmi-pullyu 592

Pyramid of the Sun 422

Pytkowicz, Ricardo 317

Q

quartz 186, 191

R

rainbow cakes 502

Ralph B. Clark Regional Park 727

Rapa Nui (Easter Island) 193

Rather, Dan 19

rattail fish 838–839

Ray, G. Carlton 240

razor clams 724

Rebikoff, Dimitri 119–120

recirculation gyre 607, 635

red-eyed tree frog 782

red-tailed hawk 440

Redondo Beach 259, 361

Redondo Canyon 259, 260

reference ellipsoid 729–730

reflection

light, 434, 449, 451

waves, 659, 702

Refugio State Beach 184

remotely operated vehicles (see also hybrid remotely operated vehicles)

Clarion-Clipperton study, 280

Deep Discoverer, 122, 273, 872

described, 119–122

Global Explorer, 87, 839

hybrid, 125

Jason, 862

Kiel 6000, 121

Poodle, 119–120

telepresence, 82, 121, 238

residence time

elements, 328, 396–397

water, 369

respiration

measurement by benthic lander, 126

defined, 394–395

organic matter, 792, 795, 858

reverse osmosis system 406

reversing thermometer (see instruments)

Rhodophyta 777

Ría Lagartos Reserve 782

Ricketts, Ed 904, 928

rock candy 320

rocks

defined, 186

igneous rock, 186–187, 191

lava, 186, 242, 27

magma, 186, 243

metamorphic rock, 186–187, 243

parent rock, 188, 200

rock cycle, 187

rockslides, 192–193

sedimentary rock, 186–187, 277, 524, 727

rockweed 899

Rocky Mountains 243

Rodinia 382, 793

Rogers, John 381

Rossby, Carl-Gustaf 465

Ross Gyre 595, 596, 598–599

Rossby wave 582

runnels 184–185

Russian River 583

Rutherford, Ernest 299

S

Sahara Desert 198, 248, 390–391

saildrones 136, 160, 167

Salinas River 201

salinity

Amazon River and, 388

buoyancy and, 506, 510

climate change and, 389

defined, 312

density and, 504–505

dissolved gases and, 338, 339–340

Gay-Lussac and, 317

geologic time and, 381–384

global SSS, 386–387

hydrothermal vents and, 388–389

littoral zone and, 894, 900–901

ITCZ and, 578

major constituents and, 323–326

measurement of, 398–400, 512–513

minor constituents and, 327

CalCOFI, seasonal changes, 520, 523, 526, 528

as tracers, 348

water cycle and, 384–385

XZ graph, 516–517

salmon 843

San Bernardino Mountains 200

San Gabriel Mountains 267

San Gabriel submarine canyon 212

San Lucas Canyon 211

sanderlings 894

Sanibel Island 178–179, 625

Santa Ana River Watershed 188–190, 195, 200–201, 218

Santa Barbara Harbor 214

Santa Cruz 336

sargassum weed 182

satellites

altimeters, 146–147, 617–618

Aqua, 150, 413

Aquarius, 58, 97–98, 386

Color Zone Coastal Scanner (CZCS), 138

GOES-18, 137

GRACE, 734–736

Jason, 112, 147, 734

Nimbus, 138, 141, 144, 165

Seafaring Satellite (Seasat), 138, 145

Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich, 146–147, 734

Suomi NPP, 608

Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS-1), 140–141

Terra, 150, 826

TOPEX/Poseidon, 147, 734

science communication 62, 903

science literacy 27

scientific diving 89

scientific method

abductive reasoning, 47–48

activity model, 37

bias, 60

chain of reasoning, 41

data analysis, 53–58

deductive reasoning, 47

falsification, 46

hypotheses, 45–49

hypothetico-deductive approach, 48–49

inductive reasoning, 47

interdisciplinary science, 14–15, 23

marine big data, 57-58

models, 43-45, 56

oceanographic approaches, 50–52

peer review, 60–61

replicability, 42

science communication, 62–63

scientific discussion, 59–61

scientific inquiry, 39, 48

scientific questions, 40–42

Scripps Institution of Oceanography 467

scuba diving 88–90, 259, 501, 507–509, 604, 674, 694

sea anemones 725, 777–779, 800, 809, 884, 896

sea beans (drift seeds) 624–625

sea cucumber 274, 780, 809, 877

sea level

changes through geologic time, 256-257, 727-728

defined, 660, 710

forebulge collapse and, 740

mean sea level, 730

measurements of, 146–147, 718, 733–736

relative to geoid, 729

relative to reference ellipsoid, 729

tides and, 710, 715

and tidal height, 720–721

sea level rise

barystatic sea level rise, 737

causes of, 737–741

extreme sea level rise, 733

global mean sea level rise, 732, 744–746

impacts, 217, 732, 741, 742–743, 749–752

local sea level rise, 730–731, 739–741, 747–748

mitigation of, 181, 751–752

and submarine canyons, 260 thermal contraction, 192

thermal expansion, 365, 732, 737–738, 758

thermosteric sea level rise, 737, 975

sea otters 525, 850

sea stars

blue sea star, 767

brisingid sea star, 883

ochre star, 708

sea surface height 146-147, 617–618

sea surface microlayer 342–344, 848–849

sea surface salinity 384–386

sea surface temperature

Coral Reef Watch, 142–143

Gulf Stream rings, 606

Scripps pier record, 467

Multi-scale Ultra-High-Resolution SSTs (MUR-SSTs), 142

satellites and, 139–143

sea surface topography 146–147, 617–618, 734–736

sea turtles 174–175, 627, 850, 854

sea urchins 780, 800, 888, 896

seafloor features

defined, 254

in relation to provinces, 255

and relief, 254–255

seafloor provinces (see also continental shelf, continental slope, abyssal, and hadal provinces)

area of, 253

defined, 254–255

depths of, 255

seagrasses 222, 225, 393, 897, 899, 902

Seal Beach 557

seamounts

in abyssal benthic zone, 882

abyssal currents and, 876

abyssal province and, 264, 266

bathyal benthic zone and, 886, 887

and cleaning stations, 270

defined, 268–269

as habitats, 269–271

marine protected areas, 270–271

mineral deposits, 277

number of, 269

and sea surface height, 618, 728

and waves, 701

seasons

and latitude, 494–495, 498–501

and surface warming, 491–493

axial tilt, 488, 496, 498

solstices, 496

equinoxes, 497, 500

solar path, 484–485, 494–495

seasonal thermocline, 518–529

seawater density

and buoyancy, 506–507

electrostriction, 320

heating and cooling, 440, 503–504

salinity, 389, 504–505

sea ice, 388–389, 505

stability, 509–510, 520, 528

seaweeds 216, 332, 393, 632, 777–778, 796, 799, 801, 874, 890, 899

sediments

depocenters, 880, 889, 911

grains, xii, 173, 186, 192, 194, 199–200, 202–204, 221, 227–228, 428, 580, 947, 954–955, 967–969, 971, 974, 978

grain size distribution, 199, 955

heritage, 188

transport, 194-206

sediment trap, 129

sedimentologists, 194, 199, 205

sorting of, 198–199

texture, 199

weathering, 192-193, 200, 216, 380

sensors

Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer, 144

hyperspectral imager, 135

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), 150

multispectral imager, 134

passive microwave sensor, 142, 144

passive sensors, 140

radiometers, 138–139, 141, 144, 150, 513

Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS), 149

synthetic aperture radar, 145

Visible and Infrared Imager/Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), 150

Shackleton, Ernest 597

Shark Bay 789–790, 831

shark cages 89–90

Shark Park 701

Shaw’s Cove 483

shelf break 241, 254, 255, 258, 886, 890

Shilabati River 222

ships

hydrographic stations, 74–77

research vessels, described, 81–86

ship’s logs, 58

Endurance, 597

Fram, 52, 612–613

HMS Challenger, 73

NOAA ship Okeanos Explorer, 515

NOAA ship Pisces, 512, 516

R/V Oceanus, 86

R/V Point Sur, 83

R/V Polarstern, 84–85, 86

R/V Ronald H. Brown, 862

R/V Sally Ride, 82

R/V Thomas G. Thompson, 108

RMS Titanic, 93, 119, 144, 398

ships of opportunity, 83

shipwrecks 119, 180, 603, 633, 723, 892

Shokalsky, Yuli 11

shrimp 270, 780, 805, 886, 887

Siberian Shelf 256, 611

Sirena Deep 274, 275

skeletons 395, 808–809, 812, 888

Skeleton Coast 180, 633–634

Slocum, Joshua 117

Smith, Rear Admiral Edward “Iceberg” 398

Snowball Earth 793–794

solstices (see seasons)

Sonoran Desert 579

Soule, Captain Floyd 398

South America

Andes, 248

Drake Passage, 611

GRACE observations, 736

red-eyed tree frog, 782

sanderling migration, 894

Saharan dust, 580

sea beans, 625

seasons, 495

South Atlantic Current 598–599, 610

South Atlantic Gyre 594, 595, 598–599

South Equatorial Current 597, 598–599, 600, 635, 643–644

South Georgia Island 534, 536

South Indian Current 598–599, 610

South Indian Gyre 594, 598–599

South Pacific Current 598–599, 609

South Pacific Gyre 594, 598–599, 650

Southern California Continental Borderland 211, 257, 288, 972

Southern Ocean 10, 249, 251

continental rise, 265

control over ocean circulation, 11–12, 250

subpolar gyres, 596

size, 253

Southwest Monsoon Current 598–599, 644

soy sauce 360

Space Shuttle Columbia 358

spam can in Sirena Deep 275

spatial resolution 75–77

specific gravity 311–312

Spilhaus, Athelstan 12

spotted lagoon jelly 294

St. Elmo’s fire 374

standard seawater 400

Stauch, August 223

Steinbeck, John 904, 928

Steudtner, Sebastian 698

Stommel, Henry 117

Stonehenge 423, 474

Straits of Juan de Fuca 339

stratification (water column) 524–526, 854

stratosphere 346–347, 539, 545

striped marlin 844

stromatolites 789–790

submarines

buoyancy, 506–507

Conshelf II garage, 96

exploration of deep, 841

and research, 91–92

vs.submersibles, 93

swell and, 674

submarine canyons 210–212, 258–263

abyssal fans and, 264–265

bathyal zone and, 887–888

benthic lander studies, 126

California Borderland, 257

continental rise and, 265

headless, 262

littoral cells and, 212–213

Monterey Bay, 256, 259

Nazaré wave, 637, 698–699

number in world ocean, 258

polar, 261

sublittoral zone and, 891–892

turbidity currents, 260, 262–263

submersibles 93–95

Challenger Deep, 95

confirmation of plate tectonics, 242

vs. submarines, 93

subpolar gyres 593, 595–596

subseafloor environment 251–252, 388

subsidence

and sea level, 737–741, 748

and submarine canyons, 262

subtidal zone 890, 897, 899

subtropical gyres 593, 594–595, 603, 609–610, 635, 852

Sun

coronal mass ejection, 426

hydrogen fusion, 425

protostar, 425

star classification, 427

solar wind, 426–427

sunrise point, 484–485

sunset point, 484–486, 494–495

surf (see also breakers)

types of, 695–696

surf prediction, 663, 667–668

surf report, 669

surf zone, 185, 203

surface zone (see epipelagic zone)

surfing 631, 656–657, 689–690, 695, 698–699, 700, 703

Swallow, John 110–111

swarm robotics 127

sweating 379

swell direction 689–690, 702

swell shadow 690

symbionts 294, 393

systematics

explained, 768–774

binomial nomenclature, 769–770

clades, 772–773

cladistics, 771–773, 775–776

classification, 768–773, 775–777

domains, 781–783

hierarchical system, 770, 775

major phyla, 777–780

phylogenetic trees, 773–774, 784–785

taxa, 775

taxonomy, 769–770, 775–777

T

Tamarama Beach 654

temperate zone 500–501

temporal resolution 78–79, 81

Tern Island 480–481

Tethys Ocean 804

Tharp, Marie 253, 283, 285

theory of common descent 781–782

thermal-based desalination 405

thermometers 435–437

thermosphere 545

Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville 73

threshold velocity 195–196, 201

tides

tidal currents, 715

tidal datum, 720–721

tidal datum benchmark, 721

tidal day, 719

tidal forces, 713–715, 722

tidal heights, xviii, 707, 720–721

tidal periods, 719

tidal range, 182, 721–723

tide gauges, 718, 733, 744, 755, 757

tide graphs, 718

zero tide height, 720–721, 723, 890, 895, 899

tipping points 452–453, 470–472

Tōhoku 693

tomol 72

Tongva peoples 258

Tornado Alley 582

Torrance Beach 752

trace elements 322, 326–331

trace fossils 802–803, 805–806, 811

trade winds

and currents, 617, 643

defined, 575–576, 578, 580

ITCZ and, 578, 634–635

scale of, 556

Saharan dust and, 198, 248, 580

train wheels and moorings 128

Transatlantic Cable 263, 398

transect 74–75, 285, 931, 975

Transpolar Drift Stream 611

Transpolar Sea Route 611

tree of life (see phylogenetic tree)

trench zone (see hadopelagic zone)

trilobites 808

tripod fish 887

troposphere 346, 446, 544–545, 570, 580, 582

Tsukiji Fish Market 622

tsunami 131, 153, 197, 260–261, 263, 669, 670, 693

turbidites 262–263

turbidity currents 211, 260–263, 878

turbulence 342, 344–345, 849, 876

twilight zone (see mesopelagic zone)

Tyranosaurus 786

U

UC Santa Barbara 73, 516, 901

Udden-Wentworth scale 178

ultraviolet light 346–347, 431

UN Law of the Sea treaty 279

uncrewed aerial platforms 134–136

uncrewed surface vessel 124, 937

uncrewed underwater vehicle 122

undersampling problem 73, 81

Undersea Feature Names Gazetteer 273

undersea research stations

Aquarius Reef Base, 97–98

Conshelf, 95–97

Jules Undersea Lodge, 98

PROTEUS, 98

uplift

and evaporites, 382–384

and oceanic plateaus, 271–272

and sea level, 737–741

and submarine canyons, 262

Ur 381, 414, 487, 789, 826

US Air Force Academy 439

US Bank Building 727

US Open of Surfing 695

V

vampire squid 855, 858

Vandenberg Air Force Base 149

Vaughn, Thomas Wayland 12

Verne, Jules 95

Vescovo, Victor 94

viperfish 867

visible light 431, 438, 441, 442

Volcano Trench 873

W

wagon wheel diatom 331

Waikiki Beach 657

Wallaginji 249

Walsh, Don 88

Warren, Bruce 110

warm-core rings 605–606, 647

warty crab 327

wastewater 371, 405

water (as resource)

bottled water, 297

conflicts, 402–403, 409

desalination, 403–414

scarcity, 402–403, 408

security, 402, 414

thermal-based desalination, 405

water column

defined, 86

destratification, 528–529

permanent thermocline, 521, 523, 526, 860

stable water column, 510, 525, 527

surface mixed layer, 521, 523–524, 854

seasonal thermocline, 522–529, 854

unstable water column, 479, 509–510

water molecule

boiling point, 376, 435–437

cohesion, 308–309

covalent bonds, 307

freezing point, 376, 435–437

hydrogen bond, 308—309

latent heat, 376–379

physical states, 373–374

specific heat, 375–376

structure, 298–299, 307–308

surface tension, 308–309, 660, 665–666, 679

universal solvent, 315

water sampling devices

CTD rosette, 512–514

Niskin bottle, 513

Pettersson-Nansen bottle, 511

watersheds 188–191, 195, 200, 212–213, 218–219, 228, 230

waves

anatomy, 662

classification by period, 668–670

cycloidal, 663

diffraction, 700–701

dispersion, 684, 692

fetch, 667, 680–682, 689

fetch width, 689

focusing, 701–702

formation of, 675–681

fully developed sea, 666–667, 679, 681–682

height, 662, 678, 681, 694–695

interference, 659

internal, 658–659

kinetic energy in, 675, 678

momentum transfer, 676–677

potential energy in, 677–678

and sediment transport, 202–207

sine wave, 661–663

spreading loss, 687–688

standing wave, 659

steepness, 694

trains (or sets), 684–686

trochoidal, 662–663

types of, 664–666

wave base, 977

wave front, 687–689, 697, 700–702

orbitals, 653, 663, 673, 678, 685, 691, 694

water particles in, 663, 673, 677–678, 685, 694

period, 667–672, 684, 692–693

reflection, 659, 702

refraction, 697, 700–701

speed, 670–672

wavelength, 662, 664, 666, 670–674, 684, 691, 693–694, 701

weather

atmospheric layers and, 545

atmospheric rivers and, 583

bomb cyclone, 688

climate change and, 424–425, 457, 462–464

latitude and, 500–501, 576–580

defined, 24–25, 542

highs and lows, 548–549

monsoon, 641–642

nowcasts, 56

ocean currents and, 594, 602, 635–638, 639, 641–642

ocean weather, 543

jet streams and, 581–583

Santa Ana winds and, 562–567

space weather, 427

weather maps, 549, 552

 457, 462–464

weather observations

aerographers, 682

ocean moorings, 128–131, 568–569, 668

satellites, 137, 140, 568–569

ships of opportunity, 86, 568–569

weather balloons, 580–581

windsocks, 550

weathering 191–193, 200, 216, 380

Webb, Douglas 117, 164

Weddell Gyre 595–596, 651

Wedge (surfspot) 257, 265, 681, 702–703, 705

Wenner, Frank 398–399

Wesley, Claude 96

West Australian Current 607

West Basin Ocean Water Desalination Project 404

West Coyote Hills 727

west wind drift currents 609–610

Western Carolina University 220

western intensification 620–621

Western Subarctic Gyre 595–596, 978

whale fall 336, 394

whale shark 335, 590, 648, 850

Whidbey Island 199, 715

white smokers 388–389

white tern (see manu-o-Kū)

Wilkins, John 95

winds (see also atmospheric circulation)

air pressure and, 550–554

and sediment sorting, 198–199

and sediment transport, 194, 197, 198, 248, 448, 580

Beaufort wind force scale, 682–683

California Current and, 628

Coriolis force and, 554–556

defined, 550

global surface winds, 568–569

heat transport, 379

momentum transfer, 676–677

monsoon, 640–643

onshore and offshore, 560–561

pressure gradient force, 552

Santa Ana winds, 562–567

sea and land breezes, 557–559

spatial scales, 556

thermals, 551

upwelling, 608

waves and, 660, 675–676, 680–681

Woese, Carl 781

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 73, 110

Woolsey Fire 462

World Meteorological Organization 111, 347, 354, 914

world ocean

defined, 10

concept of, 11–13

as hydrosphere, 20–21

system view, 22–23

world ocean circulation

concept of, 593, 644

satellite measurements, 147

Southern Ocean steering wheel, 12, 596, 610

western boundary currents and, 603

upwelling, 149, 277, 608, 628, 630–634, 648, 854, 908, 930

Wright, Dawn 95

X

XZ graph

examples, 520, 523, 526, 528

explained, 516–517, 521

Y

Yorba Regional Park 562

Z

Zealandia 248, 272, 288

zonation

circalittoral zone, 890

elittoral zone, 891

infralittoral zone, 890, 897, 899

intertidal zonation, defined, 895

intertidal zone, 725, 777, 890, 893, 896–902

Ricketts and Calvin scheme, 897–899

splash zone, 896

sublittoral zone, 890–892, 897, 899

submersion and emersion, 893–894

subtidal zone, 890, 897